Link to presentation

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Presentation- World Wide Web

Presentation for EDUC 628

World Wide Web

WWW.

A family is watching a show on the weather channel.

The son asks his father, “When did Alaska become a state?”

The father replies, “I don’t know, but we can Google-it and find the answer.”

“You’re such a nerd, Dad, you Google everything,” said his son.

This was the conversation in our living room recently. It is just one example of how the invention of the World Wide Web has intertwined into our daily life. This creation has single-handed changed the way Americans life their daily lives. Let’s begin by taking a look at how the World Wide Web came into existence.

Background.

In Vinton G. Cerf’s (2009) article, “The day the Internet began”, he tells about the development of the project that laid the foundation for the birth of the Internet. Lawrence Roberts led the ARPANET project in the early 1960s. The project was originally a network of dedicated telephone lines that were connected via Interface Message Processors (IMPs). After many crash tests the ARPNET successfully debuted in 1972. Research led to progress developments and in 1983 the ARPNET was split into two networks, one military and one public, until it was officially decommissioned in 1990. Cerf (2009) ended his article with, “If you can imagine it and can program it, you can probably make it available on the Internet- a freedom to innovate that has its root in the original ARPNET work” (p. 1203).

Tim Berners-Lee was the creator of the World Wide Web. In “The World Wide Web-Past, Present and Future” Lee (1997) talks about creating a universe in which millions of people could navigate daily. Lee began writing the World Wide Web program in 1990 using the NEXT program. It was functional but was only available to people using that program. Lee continued work on the Browser until he had a platform accessible to everyone.

So how did Lee see the Web in 1996? Lee (1997) stated, “Well, what you actually see when you look at the Web is pretty much a corporate broadcast medium. The largest use of the Web is the Corporation making a broadcast message to the consumer” (p. 2). The World Wide Web Consortium was created as a neutral body to govern the Web. However, the Consortium is not above political influence for they have moved quickly to address some areas because of political pressures in the past.

Educational Implications.

The Web has exploded since 1996 and is now a vast “universe” of “cyberspace”. Richard Yonck’s (2011) article entitled, “Treading in the Sea of Data” provides a great statement:

Information: Our world is swimming it. With each passing day, our lives become more dependent on it. Yet, the very magnitude of this torrent of data compromises its benefits to us. New strategies and technologies are not evolving that may save us from drowning- and even help us thrive” (pg. 32).

He discusses the natural desire for information and links this to a study, which revealed that receiving information releases dopamine causing a good feeling.

Yonck (2011) introduces lifelogging, the electronic logging of one’s life, which could result in enormous amounts of digital information along with the metadata created by computers. This has led Tim Berners-Lee to his second creation of the Semantic Web. Yonck (2011) states, “the Semantic Web aims to take information that is currently only machine readable and make machine understandable” (pg 33). These improvements will allow computers to gather and sort information to suit our needs without human oversight. Yonck (2011) even suggests that as the Semantic Web widens there will be developments in software with the ability to create intelligent agents. He proposes these agents will be able to act as personal assistants and possibly appear as avatars in a virtual world on the web.

Educational Implications.

The development of the World Wide Web has also changed education. In his article, “Growing up Digital: How the web changes work, education, and the ways people learn,” John Seely Brown (2000) stated, “Worldwide, electricity became a transformative medium for social practices. In quite the same way, the World Wide Web will be a transformative medium, as important as electricity” (pg. 11-12). The computer network that sparked our curiosity has now evolved into an endless mix of possibilities for social and market needs.

Brown (2000) discusses three aspects of the Web as the new media medium. He begins by presenting the web as a two-way proposition of push and pull. The user has the ability to act as consumer and producer, both receiver and sender of a “broadcast” or information. Next, the Web is the first medium that addresses multiple intelligences. This has potential educational effects as Brown (2000) stated, “As educators, we now have a chance to construct a medium that enables all young people to become engaged in their ideal way of learning. The Web affords the match between a medium and how a particular person learns” (p. 12). Lastly, the web provides the opportunity for small efforts of many people to help the large efforts of a few. Brown (2000) gives the example of many senior citizens helping a few teachers in enhancing student learning through mentoring.

Brown (2000) also proposed that the Web had only began to impact our lives and challenges us “to foster an entrepreneurial spirit toward creating new learning environments- a spirit that will use the unique capabilities of the We to leverage the natural ways that humans learn” (pg. 13). He recognized that kids were growing up is a digital world and were multiprocessing constantly, which results in short attention spans and may be an asset in the future work world.

Brown (2000) discusses the shifts in concepts as a result of the Web, such as the concept of literacy, navigation, reasoning and action. Traditionally literacy has been associated with text only, however now literacy encompasses images and text on the screen. This multimedia text changes genres rapidly and will also require an ability to navigate information. Learners will discover information through Web surfing and will use reasoning skills to find and use information. Successful learners will become web-smart and be able to make good judgments. Learners will also have a bias toward action. They will surf the Web and links, prowling and watching others and then trying it for themselves. Brown (2000) states, “Learning becomes situated in action; it becomes as much social as cognitive, it is concrete rather than abstract, and it becomes intertwined with judgment and exploration” (p. 14). So the Web creates a learning medium in which knowledge is created through action and participation in the world with real people and real problems and where kids can learn naturally.

Brown (2000) proposes that students learn “in situ”, which is through doing. Sharing stories is a means by which students can relay information learned from a situation in which they gained experience in solving a problem. Some of the most powerful learning occurs during the sharing of these stories. Brown (2000) shares his opinion on social learning, the essence of life long learning as “a shift between using technology to support the individual to using technology to support relationships between individuals” (p. 20).

Marlene Asselin and Maryam Moayeri’s (2011) “The Participatory Classroom: Web 2.0 in the Classroom” examines the potential use Web 2.0 by teachers in their classroom to support student learning. The authors believe there is an urgent need for teachers to expand literacy instruction using social elements in new ways. The use of new literacies and new forms of texts for locating and critically examining information and ways of sharing and building knowledge within the participatory and creative landscape of Web 2.0, the ‘social web’.

They criticize the failure of schools to address new literacy competency and lack of use of Web 2.0 applications, which enables participation, invention, and knowledge building. They argue the features are aligned with the participatory culture driving political, social and economic life of today. Schools are primarily using Web 2.0 in a consumerism manner, however Web 2.0 tools can be used to find information in more useful, social and participatory ways, such as with social bookmarking, or can annotate a web page.

They wrote, “Teachers of critical literacy encourage their students to deconstruct the text by understanding the foundation and conflicts that lie beneath the surface content and the relationship that the text holds with other text(s)” (Asselin and Moayeri, 2011, p. iii). Teachers should have students present their learning through sharing and presenting in print or media. Students could use Web 2.0 tools such as wikis, video sharing, and/or social network sites. “Encouraging posting in different modes such as image, video, and audio files would be one way to embrace the new uses of these new literacies” (Asselin and Moayeri, 2011, p. vi). The schools’ role is to engage students and support their learning and guide them to in their use of the web in being ethically and socially responsible.

Jukes, McCain and Crockett’s (2010) “ Education and the Role of the Educator in the Future” examines the role of educators in shaping students’ lives. An educator’s job is to prepare students for their lives in our rapidly changing world. They criticize the current educational system’s focus on the short term and their failure to recognize an outdated system. They believe the future classroom will not be the one of the past, but rather whenever and wherever learning can take place and happen. Students will not be confined to a classroom or school building for that matter. Jukes, McCain and Crockett (2010) believe

The essence of what educators must do in future is the very same as it’s always been: to help students learn the relevant skills, knowledge, attitudes, attributes, and behaviors that they’ll need to be good and productive citizens, parents and workers (p. 16).

They discuss ten 21^st century goals of education in the new expectations for teachers.

They criticize the current model for learning in a school due to its contradictions to the natural learning intuitiveness. The first goal is customizing learning for the learner. The current educational model is not designed for the customized learning of individuals but rather for providing instruction to a whole group. This is crippling for some students due to lack of engagement. However, technology could provide students with the means and opportunity to master course content at their own individual pace. Schools will be able to provide individualized instruction and as a result schooling will focus on mastery of content and skills instead of grade and age achievements.

The second goal is focused on learning being virtual and physical. The Web has created opportunities for relationships to exist in virtual environments. Learners no longer have to be in a classroom with a teacher. Technology can provide students with learning opportunities anywhere there is a teachable moment. Jukes, McCain and Crockett (2010) believe

Students will still be able to meet, discuss, play basketball and interact with others in smaller, community-based schools that are close to their homes; but the need for a large school building with all its resources will be greatly diminished due to access to virtual learning resources (p. 16).

The third goal is learning is nonlinear. This is not possible in the current educational model but will be possible with new technologies. This will allow for more natural learning as cognitive links are formed and would engage students. Students would be allowed to follow their interests and ideas spontaneously as they developed. They propose intelligent tracking software would track and guide progress. It would also identify goals to remaining to met as well as instructional holes. The educator’s role would be one of facilitator or guide.

The fourth goal deals with learning with thinking machines. Jukes, McCain and Crockett (2010) stated, “Up until now, technological tools have been used for searching, retrieving, viewing, organizing, calculating, and editing information” (p. 17). However, in the future students will interact with SMART (Systems Managing Agents in Real Time) tutors that will provide assistance with skill development. This type of interaction whether online or with a robot will become as natural as talking with a human teacher. This will allow the teacher to focus and spend their time on teaching higher-level skills.

Fifth, learning is focused on multimedia. The authors quote John Naisbit as saying a visual culture is taking over the world. Students will need to be equipped with the skills to process multimedia messages. This will require both skills in receiving and decoding messages sent along with communication with multimedia formats. Students will serve as consumers, producers and publishers of information. The educator’s role will be advocating the use of technology and getting students access to digital tools.

Learning is collaborative is the sixth goal presented. Collaboration is essential and now technology has provided the opportunity to collaborate with people across the world. Therefore it is essential that students acquire collaboration skills to be successful in school, work and life. New technologies will provide opportunities for experts to virtually assist teachers in the classroom. Educators will need to become lifelong learners. They will also need to transition from teaching to students to one of learning with students and maybe even from students.

Seventh, learning using the whole mind. This is based on brain research linking high level thought in problem solving using both sides of the brain. Traditional schooling is primarily focused on the left side of the brain. New technologies can bring automation and outsourcing which requires high levels of thought. Jukes, McCain and Crockett (2010) stated, “While students must develop left-brain skills in reading, writing, arithmetic and logic analysis, they must develop right-brain skills in information processing and problem solving” (p. 19).

Learning is based on discovery. In the traditional school setting teachers lecture and students listen and then take a test. They often forget the content they memorized within 48 hours of taking the test. In my opinion, this is one of the problems with the current education model and its’ emphasis on testing and accountability system. There is not time to really delve into the content due to time constraints and the demands of the content to be covered. However, with technological developments students will have the ability to learn firsthand instead of listening to lectures. These learning experiences will allow student to explore and discover using simulations. The educator’s role will be creating learning tasks that will foster development of high level thinking skills through discovery.

Ninth, learning is problem-based. This is in contrast to the current model, which is focused on instruction of content delivery. In order for long term learning to occur content will need to be relevant and engaging for students. The students should use their whole brain in completing activities. The educator’s role will be to craft problems that address content and use high level thinking skills. Teachers will need training in problem-based instruction.

The last goal addressed by Jukes, McCain and Crockett (2010) is evaluation being holistic. The current education model uses written tests, usually multiple-choice questions with some essay or short answer, which only provides a snapshot of student learning. This type of test reflects memorization and repetition of content. In the modern world, real learning will include development of social skills and consideration of others. This will require the student to use a number of skills in completing problem solving tasks. The educator’s roles will be evaluating students holistically. This could be done through portfolios with student work samples, live performances or some other demonstration of creativity and competency. Feedback should be timely, specific and non-judgmental. New software will complete summative assessments leaving time for teachers to focus on holistic evaluations.

In order to meet the educational goals presented, educators will need training. Jukes, McCain and Crockett (2010) state, “Retraining will require regular classes for teachers for which they are released from their regular teaching duties” (p. 21). The traditional allotment of a few professional development days for technology training will not be sufficient in developing teacher skills.

Economic and Social Implications.

Technologies, such as the World Wide Web, have shaped the economic, social, and political life practices of our civilization. In his article, “Web 2.0: a new chapter in development in practice?” Chris Addison (2006) presents how developments in communications particular to the Internet change the international development community. Tim O’Rielly popularized the term Web 2.0 to describe these new services, which presented a new way of working. Addison (2006) wrote, “It makes it easier to build DIY web sites without needing a host or consultancy company. It is also possible to participate in the development of large collaborate systems for sharing information” (p.624) such as Wikipedia.org. He presents the following services: web logs (blogging), wikis, newsreaders, swikki, social bookmarking, Dgroups, A9.com and Google services.

The World Wide Web is entering its third decade and has changed drastically since the beginning. Chris Edwards’ (2010) “Forever Blowing Bubbles” examines marketing with the Web. He discusses the “Cluetrain Manifesto: The End of Business as Usual” by Rick Levine, Christopher Locke, Doc Searls and David Weinberger. Edwards (2010) proposes that blogging and social media is used more among marketing people. He wrote

In the ‘Cluetrain’ world, authority figures no longer have control over public opinion because a million, a billion voices might disagree and publish their views on a multitude of blogs, forums, and websites. In practice, this has always been the case- without collective dissent being possible revolutions would never have happened. However; the World Wide Web has made it much easier and quicker to challenge the pronouncements from on high (p. 71).

Edwards also discusses Mooer’s Law, which is useful rule on searching for information. It is based on the theory that people do not like to search for information and even when information is available people will ignore it if it is tough understand. He believes, “Actively getting things wrong can make you more famous on the Web than someone who has patiently researched a topic and uncovered as much evidence as they can to support it” (Edwards, 2010, p.71). This will happen by people pointing out error on social media like Twitter, Face book or a blog and including a link to the mistake thus making the results displayed in a search engine to provide a link to that page. In order to address this problem, Tim Berners-Lee wants more data online and wants to use machine intelligence to search and sort to yield more useful information.

The World Wide Web with its social network sites has helped some countries in their fight for political reform. This has been seen in Tunisia and Egypt in their rebellion of government authority and fight for democracy using Facebook to communicate and spread their message. Women in Saudi Arabia have also used Face book to help aid in their fight for women’s rights. The Web with its social media played a huge part in the victory of the Tunisian revolt that sparked the other Middle East movements.

There have been both positive and negative contributions with major technological innovations. For example, the world has seen incredible advances in the medical field as well as improvements in the quality of living. Socially, distance is no longer a barrier in communicating with friends, family or colleagues. However, there is a cost-benefit to all things.

The advancing technology also brings its share of pitfalls and problems. For example, law enforcement departments have created task forces to deal with ‘cyber’ crimes, those crimes taking place on the Internet. Cyber bullying is fast becoming a problem in the schools of America. In addition, cyber terrorism is a threat to the government and financial agencies in America.

It is hard to determine who benefits most from new technologies. I believe all society benefits from the new technologies in some form. Politicians and government often led the way for these advancing technologies. The economic market has also benefited, for instance the Internet had provided small businesses as well as individuals the ability to market their product to the world with ease. There are also educational and social benefits associated with the Internet as previously discussed.

There was recently a story on our local news addressing the idea that the World Wide Web was causing a decline in people’s memory. The reporter proposed that people are no longer choosing to remember all the information they once did because they could simply look up the answer to any question on the Internet. This was a reminder of the warnings in presented in Neal Postman’s (1992) Technopoly .

There have been several major contributors to our technological society. It is difficult to determine who has shaped society the most with their invention. Arguments could be made for Tim Berners-Lee and his creation of the World Wide Web, Thomas Edison and electricity, or Steve Jobs and Apple electronics. However, one thing is for certain, these people have shaped the way society lives.

References

Addison, C. (2006). Web 2.0: a new chapter in development in practice?. Development in

Practice, 16(6), 623-627. doi:10.1080/09614520600958348

Asselin, M., & Moayeri, M. (2011). The Participatory Classroom: Web 2.0 in the

Classroom. Australian Journal of Language & Literacy, 34(2), 45. Retrieved from

EBSCOhost.

Brown, J. (2000). GROWING UP DIGITAL. Change, 32(2), 10. Retrieved from

EBSCOhost.

Berners-Lee, T. (1997). The World Wide Web- Past, Present, and Future. [Electronic

version]. Journal of Digital Information, Vol 1, No 1 (1997)

http://journals.tdl.org/jodi/article/viewArticle/3/3

Cerf, V. G. (2009). The day the Internet age began. Nature, 461(7268), 1202-1203.

doi:10.1038/4611202a

Edwards, C. C. (2010). Forever blowing bubbles [World Wide web]. Engineering &

Technology (17509637), 5(16), 70-71. doi:10.1049/et.2010.1617

Jukes, I., McCain, T., & Crockett, P. Education and the Role of the Educator in the

Future. (2010). Phi Delta Kappan, 92(4), 8-

14. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.

Postman, Neal. (1992). Technopoly: The Surrender of Culture to Technology. New York:

Vintage Books.

Yonck, R. (2011). Treading in the Sea of Data. Futurist, 45(4), 32. Retrieved from

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Synthesis of Cuban’s Teacher and Machines

Let me begin by saying these last three weeks have been a blur. It is hard to believe that in one week this class will be finished and I will going back to work starting a new school year. Geez, where did summer go? It has been a whirlwind learning experience that I have enjoyed with each of you and thanks for sharing your experiences making for some interesting blog reading. :)

Larry Cuban’s book, Teachers and Machines: The Classroom Use of Technology Since 1920 (1986) is intended to provide insights into what tools teachers have used and why teachers have used them.

Introduction.

Cuban introduces the paradox of constancy amidst change that has faced public schools. Public schools have undergone changes in their governance, programs, curricula, organization and instruction to a various measures over the years. Cuban proposes the interplay between the classroom teacher and technology as an example that exhibits the paradox most clearly.

Cuban explains that teachers have been viewed as inflexible and resistant to technologies. He also introduces the strains and contradictions that teachers must cope with on a routine basis. Cuban talks about the contradictory social messages that teachers are faced with and lists the following four ideas that still rang true today:

· Socialize all children, yet nourish each child’s individual creativity.

· Teach the best that the past has to offer, but insure that each child possesses practical skills marketable in the community.

· Demand obedience to authority, but encourage individual children to think and question.

· Cultivate cooperation, but prepare children to compete. (pg. 2)

Teachers cope with these messages to the best of their knowledge and ability. However, teachers are held to unrealistic expectations and are left open to attacks by the public and even administration.

Cuban establishes the chalk, slate, books and pictures in the nineteenth-century to films, radio, tape recorders, television, and computers as the instruction medium for helping teachers. Reformers have given promises of solutions for increasing learning and solving problems with technological advances. When teachers failed to come aboard the “teacher-bashing” ensued.

Cuban’s discusses of a few of the themes that are familiar to current education practice. As discussed above, Cuban says the paradox in education is constancy amidst change. I believe the only constancy is that there has been an educational system and that system is constantly going through change. Cuban discusses some of the changes that schools have undergone. One thing is for certain education is in constant change.

Second, Cuban discusses the teacher-technology relationship or lack of relationship. He tells us historically teachers and has been “inflexibly resistant” to new technology and this continues into the current classrooms of today’s schools. As discussed in previous blogs there are several reasons why teachers are so unwilling to use the technologies available, the most relevant of which is lack of training. Teachers feel as though their instruction is hindered or “wasted” in trying to use the technology because they can’t get it to “work”.

In my opinion, teachers are continually asked to perform tasks that are above the realm of human possibility. I didn’t get the memo that along with my certification came superpowers (and I didn’t get the superpowers either- sad face, pouty lip). I feel that administration has added so many extra duties, paper work and documentation that instruction is suffering.

Cuban Ch. 1

Chapter one focuses on the introduction of film and radio into the classroom. Cuban discusses a research from the 1920s and 1930s that implied films motivated students to learn. These findings resulted in researchers, policy makers, and practitioners believing that film was superior as a teaching tool. This was just one example of a media comparison study. I performed a Google search with the keywords of “media comparison study”. A media study is “Media studies is an academic discipline and field of study that deals with the content, history and effects of various media” (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_studies). “No significant difference research” was the parameters of another Google search and yielded the following website: no significant difference research. It is a website devoted to research study outcomes between alternate forms of delivery.

In statistics, I learned that “no significant difference” meant that the results were not significant. The results could be attributed to other factors and therefore the hypothesis could not be proven true. So in these media comparison studies results are inconclusive and cannot be held as truth.

In chapter one Cuban does give four reasons that hindered teacher adoption of technology:

· Teachers’ lack of skills in using equipment and film

· Cost of films, equipment and upkeep

· Inaccessibility of equipment when it is needed

· Finding and fitting the right film to the class

These reasons would continue to ring true with other technological advances.

Cuban Ch. 2

In chapter two Cuban discusses the introduction of television into the classroom. In some places television was introduced to combat a student population explosion and teacher shortage. The Ford Foundation’s Fund for the Advancement of Education helps provide the resources for getting televisions and programming into some schools. There was support for classroom television in newspapers, magazines and journals. During the first decade of adoption the following patterns were established:

· Total instruction program: the television provides instruction from a teacher filmed. (Documented in Samoa-, which presently produces more NFL players than anywhere else).

· Supplemented television instruction: teachers used television lessons to supplement their instruction up to 1/3 of school day.

· Television as a teaching aid: This was the method most teachers used. Use may be once a day to once a month.

Cuban reveals that teacher adoption and use of media is remarkably consistent. At best teachers use technology primarily, as a supplement to instruction. In my opinion, most teachers become teachers to teach. They want to teach the lessons, to present the content. Teachers are doers. Most teachers feel they know better than the technology being used anyway. Teachers also like to teach the way they were taught and most of the time that includes using media as an accessory- a supplemental tool.

In the last chapter and with the research the results show no significant difference the findings would not be useful. It is hard to compare- its like apples and oranges. Cuban discusses another media comparison study using television.

Cuban Ch. 3

Cuban offers a collection of reasons why teachers adopt or fail to adopt innovation. The first is accessibility of hardware and software. Cuban stated, “If breakdowns and obsolescence of equipment are one issue, another is the number of radio and television sets and movie projectors that are available” (pg. 53). Cuban gives the following reason for non-use: 1) broadcast time inconvenient, 2) no equipment or facilities, 3) no time and 4) facilities inconvenient (pg. 53).

Cuban discussed implementation of the innovation. He proposes the most common direction of school change is from the top-down. This produces a token compliance response. Cuban discusses the two beliefs of those who push the technological innovations. First, they view education as a military structured unit in which orders are given and executed where teaching is delivered in a decentralized form. Second, adopting technological advances brings efficiency and teaching as a mechanical process in the delivering knowledge, skills and tools to students.

I will like to discuss the accessibility of implementation of innovation from a personal perspective. My personal experience in this area, I am afraid, would be more related to the next chapter on computers but I will discuss it here. A few years ago, our district invested in technology resources to make for 21^st century classrooms. Each teacher in the district was given a Smart Airliner wireless slate and a LCD projector mounted on ceiling and a screen. I was given the job of technology integration specialist for 9 schools in our district. I went to all the teachers in the school and installed the software and connected the wireless slate. I also provided professional development and resources for teachers on how to use the technology in their classroom. Some teachers used the tools immediately and loved them. They integrated them into almost all their daily activities. Some never touched them. All embraced the LCD projectors. The younger teachers implemented the Airlines (wireless smart boards) and the software, and older teachers were much more resistant. I followed-up with teachers throughout the year and found that some teachers could barely check their email. One teacher was still using overhead transparencies! Teachers did not take the time to learn the new technologies. This was a prime example of token compliance.

The board and superintendent decided on the technology and the decision had been a top-down one. Teachers were not invested in this. I would talk to them about new teacher standards and they were expected to know how to use technology. I took the approach of ‘I could get more bees with honey’ approach. I attempted to teach teachers how to trouble shoot problems- I would teach them as I fixed it and I made trouble-shooting guides. I asked what would they like to know and addressed those concerns. Many teachers would cite reasons for example, they tried and it didn’t work and time was wasted or they were afraid and would be glad to try to use it if I was around if there was a problem. I felt like I was making a difference however I was moved back into the classroom because I was not tenured and an assistant principal lost her position and was placed in mine. She got another job and they left the position unfilled and now our district now has done away with it.

Cuban also discusses the classroom and school as work settings and the nature of the teaching profession. He also analyzes teacher use of machines.

Cuban Ch. 4

Cuban predicted that computers would be used the same way radio, TV, and film are used. His prediction was both right and wrong in my opinion. First how was he right. Today, I think teachers have more access to classroom computers. Classroom computers are largely limited to a few workstations and sometimes they don’t’ work. There is also limited access to school labs or mobile carts. I think computers offer more flexibility as far as scheduling and software as opposed to film, radio or television.

Cuban did not anticipate the current shift of on-line and distance learning courses, and this was where he was wrong. Computers have now offered a new educational classroom- a student’s own home. The dynamic changes when the computer is the classroom, such as this on-line class. In this class, all work is composed and presented with the computer. The computer provides access to course assignments and podcasts. However, I do not feel this approach would work well with students younger than high school. I could see using a blended learning environment but I feel children younger than high school would not have the ability to fully benefit and participate in such a class. I am sure that some students may be ready but the majority would not. I believe that children need someone in the room physically accessible.

Epilogue

What is Cuban’s purpose in writing this book? Did he accomplish it?

Cuban views the classroom as a workplace. I do not believe many policy makers view it as such. Cuban also wanted to determine what technology teachers used and why they used it. Cuban does present research findings and experience as to what technology teachers used and why. The reasons behind the lack of use remained fairly consist over the years.

However, during the school week I spend as many waking hours in my classroom as I do my own home. I was informed that I was going to have to move my classroom the year before last. It was going to be my 8^th move in 7 years and I had just spent over $300 during the summer on paint and shelving for the room. It was perfect. My dream classroom and I was told I would have to move. I was so mad. Why? Because it just wasn’t a classroom. It was my classroom- my home away from home. I did move the school bought my paint and other supplies and with the help and encouragement of my friends I created another home and even like it a little better. My classroom just isn’t where I work; it is where I live too. I open it to my students and we build a relationship. I take responsibility for their learning. So I think this is part of the reason teachers are so reluctant to open their classrooms to technology.

Do you think technology is used more in elementary, secondary or post-secondary educational settings?

Cuban suggests that technology is used more in the elementary grades. I would agree to some extent that elementary grades are more exploratory and willing to allow technology into their classrooms. In my school, I believe the primary teachers use more software and video as sources than the intermediate or middle school teachers. However, I believe secondary schools are now embracing computers and software as a teaching medium for students to recovery credits and graduate on-schedule. This type of setting had allowed some students the opportunity to graduate that would have previously dropped out of school.

In addition, I believe that post-secondary schools have embraced distance learning through the use of technology. It has provided an opportunity to get an education that did not exist before or was out of reach for many people. There has been an increase in the number of classes offered on-line at all the local colleges and universities. I see on-line classes increasing and becoming more the norm in post-secondary education in the future. I also believe this will filter down into the high schools.

Address the commonalities across Cuban, Hughes and Postman—that is, what themes and ideas did you find the three authors shared.

When I first began reading Cuban I was did not think I would find any common themes with the first two books. However in reflecting over Cuban, Hughes and Postman I have found some common themes.

First, Postman believed technologies increased the information supply and schools served to control some of that information. Hughes view is contradictory as he feels that we are technologically illiterate. In my opinion, Cuban bridges these two ideals. Reformers controlled the production of film and television programs available to schools, thus controlling information and supporting Postman’s view. On the other hand, teachers are resistant to change and often close the door on new technologies and that supports Hughes view.

Second, Postman discusses “learning technologies” and proposes that technopolies are interested in making learning more efficient. Postman feels education should address the question of “what is learning for?” (pg. 171). Hughes believes that technology is developed to serve a purpose. Machine technology produced goods and services that excited consumers. Cuban again intertwines these ideas into his writing. He tells us how technologies were introduced into the classroom with the under the ideal that learning would become more efficient. Teachers would also be more efficient in their role as well. Reformers were excited about these new technologies and sold them to schools with promises of bettering education. These new “learning technologies” would make teachers more efficient. However, in some instances teachers were made more like a mechanical machine. Cuban also questions what learning is for and how these questions largely remain unanswered.

Last is the human-machine likeness. Postman compares the computer to humans and attempts to “humanize” the computer. He talks about the computer, as it is a human or being capable of thinking for itself. Hughes also proposes that technologies may someday redesign the human-built world and maybe even humans. Cuban touches the lines of these two authors when he talks about collateral learning and children at a school immersed in technology. The children began to see the computers as “friends” and developing a child-robot friendship. Even older students may seek the computer for friendship.

Postman and Hughes did discuss the enchantment that technology had on some people. Cuban also talked about those “who saw solutions to school problems in swift technological advances” (pg. 5). We have read about the spell technology cast over people.

What different ideas did Cuban raise?

Cuban raises more questions dealing with education and technology. He examines the relationship between teachers and technology along with the benefits and drawbacks of using technology in the classroom. This could be seen as a cost-benefit theme we have seen before in Postman and Hughes as well. However, Cuban is largely supportive of technology being used in the classroom. The question is more how should technology be implemented into the classroom to best benefit and enhance student learning.

Cuban also addresses the bureaucracy of politics between school board policy makers, education reformers and salesman pushing the next technology that is the magic bullet. These relationships often led to changes in education which Cuban views as the paradox of constancy amidst change.

Cuban Epilogue

This week has been a blur, my mind is reeling with the upcoming projects that are due and I have found it hard to concentrate on this book with that looming over my head. Wait, I have to focus!

What is Cuban’s purpose in writing this book? Did he accomplish it?

Cuban views the classroom as a workplace. I do not believe many policy makers view it as such. Cuban also wanted to determine what technology teachers used and why they used it. Cuban does present research findings and experience as to what technology teachers used and why. The reasons behind the lack of use remained fairly consist over the years.

However, during the school week I spend as many waking hours in my classroom as I do my own home. I was informed that I was going to have to move my classroom the year before last. It was going to be my 8^th move in 7 years and I had just spent over $300 during the summer on paint and shelving for the room. It was perfect. My dream classroom and I was told I would have to move. I was so mad. Why? Because it just wasn’t a classroom. It was my classroom- my home away from home. I did move the school bought my paint and other supplies and with the help and encouragement of my friends I created another home and even like it a little better. My classroom just isn’t where I work; it is where I live too. I open it to my students and we build a relationship. I take responsibility for their learning. So I think this is part of the reason teachers are so reluctant to open their classrooms to technology.

Do you think technology is used more in elementary, secondary or post-secondary educational settings?

Cuban suggests that technology is used more in the elementary grades. I would agree to some extent that elementary grades are more exploratory and willing to allow technology into their classrooms. In my school, I believe the primary teachers use more software and video as sources than the intermediate or middle school teachers. However, I believe secondary schools are now embracing computers and software as a teaching medium for students to recovery credits and graduate on-schedule. This type of setting had allowed some students the opportunity to graduate that would have previously dropped out of school.

In addition, I believe that post-secondary schools have embraced distance learning through the use of technology. It has provided an opportunity to get an education that did not exist before or was out of reach for many people. There has been an increase in the number of classes offered on-line at all the local colleges and universities. I see on-line classes increasing and becoming more the norm in post-secondary education in the future. I also believe this will filter down into the high schools.

Cuban Ch. 4

Cuban predicted that computers would be used the same way radio, tv, and film are used. Was he right?

Cuban was right. Today, I think teachers have more access to classrooms computers. Classroom computers are largely limited to a few workstations and sometimes they don’t’ work. There is also limited access to school labs or mobile carts. I think computers offer more flexibility as far as scheduling and software that is available.

How does this dynamic change when the computer is the classroom (like this class)? Or does it?

I think the dynamic has change when the computer is the classroom. In this class, all work is composed and presented with the computer. The computer provides access to course assignments and podcasts. However, I do not feel this approach would work well with students younger than high school. I could see using a blended learning environment but I feel children younger than high school would not have the ability to fully benefit and participate in such a class. I am sure that some students may be ready but the majority would not. I believe that children need someone in the room physically accessible.

In our class, the computer is still a tool- a medium that we use to compose work, publish it, and communicate.

Another way to think about that is “Beyond the communications aspect, how do we use computers in this class?

Computers are used to compose our work. It provides me with access to research materials and resources. The computer is a learning tool for me to use in acquiring knowledge and information.

How do other teachers use computers in their online classes?

I have largely only used Blackboard in my other online classes. I have also participated in virtual chats with professor and fellow students. I have submitted all communication on discussion boards and submitted work on Blackboard.

However, this class has used a blog for everything. I only go to Blackboard to check for assignments. I like the podcasts and hearing the Dr. Lowell’s thoughts and insights. I like using the blog but I like the ability of the discussion board to know when things have been posted to not only mine but others work as well.

Cuban Ch. 3

Cuban offers a collection of reasons why teachers adopt or fail to adopt innovation. Pick one and discuss it form you own perception/practice.

I will discuss the accessibility of implementation of innovation. My personal experience in this area, I am afraid, would be more related to the next chapter on computers but I will discuss it here. A few years ago, our district invested in technology resources to make for 21^st century classrooms. Each teacher in the district was given a Smart Airliner wireless slate and a LCD projector mounted on ceiling and a screen. I was given the job of technology integration specialist for 9 schools in our district. I went to all the teachers in the school and installed the software and connected the wireless slate. I also provided professional development and resources for teachers on how to use the technology in their classroom. Some teachers used the tools immediately and loved them. They integrated them into almost all their daily activities. Some never touched them. All embraced the LCD projectors. The younger teachers implemented the Airlines (wireless smart boards) and the software, and older teachers were much more resistant. I followed-up with teachers throughout the year and found that some teachers could barely check their email. One teacher was still using overhead transparencies! Teachers did not take the time to learn the new technologies. This was a prime example of token compliance.

The board and superintendent decided on the technology and the decision had been a top-down one. Teachers were not invested in this. I would talk to them about new teacher standards and they were expected to know how to use technology. I took the approach of ‘I could get more bees with honey’ approach. I attempted to teach teachers how to trouble shoot problems- I would teach them as I fixed it and I made trouble-shooting guides. I asked what would they like to know and addressed those concerns. Many teachers would cite reasons for example, they tried and it didn’t work and time was wasted or they were afraid and would be glad to try to use it if I was around if there was a problem. I felt like I was making a difference however I was moved back into the classroom because I was not tenured and an assistant principal lost her position and was placed in mine. She got another job and they left the position unfilled and now our district now has done away with it.

I agree with the comment today during the podcast that teachers expect to be trained. There have been few trainings that I have attended that I have left and thought it was great. Some are motivational until you realize you can’t change things because of bureaucratic policy.

There is one area that Cuban touches on but doesn’t address directly. What do you think it is?

I am not totally sure I am on the right track here but here it goes.

I think Cuban is trying to address that teacher may need a break, a time to catch your breath and refocus. I know that television programs are used during snack times in our primary classrooms. Compact disc players are used every day to play the audio track that corresponds to the story being covered. These are times when a teacher can slow down and take a moment- to semi-relax.

Cuban Ch. 2

Cuban reveals that teacher adoption and use of media is remarkably consistent in not using it.

Teachers use technology primarily, as a supplement at best. In my opinion, most teachers become teachers to teach. They want to teach the lessons; they want to present the content. Teachers are doers. Most teachers feel they know better than the technology being used anyway. Teachers also like to teach the way they were taught and most of the time that includes using media as an accessory- a supplemental tool.

As has been stated before teachers are resistant to change- and ironically, the education field is always changing.

Media comparison studies done between televised and non-televised lessons showed no significant difference in outcomes as measured by achievement tests. With what you know about the kind of research, is this a useful finding? Why/Why not?

In the last chapter and with the research the results show no significant difference the findings would not be useful. It is hard to compare- its like apples and oranges.

We have spent over 20,000 dollars on a computer program for students to improve reading to grade level or beyond. It will give a sophomore reading level at the end. The program is guaranteed or money back. There are studies to prove it is effective. Yet, teachers are not using it. Why? The program came with instructions and recommendations for use. The teachers were trained but no one was willing to implement the program the way it was designed and intended. The program was not implemented effectively. Teachers used it as a supplemental program. There was no consistency and monitoring. Thus, there were not the results hoped for and now it is unused.

Chapter summary

In chapter two Cuban discusses the introduction of television into the classroom. In some places television was introduced to combat a student population explosion and teacher shortage. The Ford Foundation’s Fund for the Advancement of Education helps provide the resources for getting televisions and programming into some schools. There was support for classroom television in newspapers, magazines and journals. During the first decade of adoption the following patterns were established:

· Total instruction program: the television provides instruction from a teacher filmed. (Documented in Samoa-, which presently produces more NFL players than anywhere else).

· Supplemented television instruction: teachers used television lessons to supplement their instruction up to 1/3 of school day.

· Television as a teaching aid: This was the method most teachers used. Use may be once a day to once a month.

Cuban discusses Samoa and Hagerstown, Maryland. He also talked about observations that were conducted in classrooms. Cuban also provided a summary of the chapter at the end.

Cuban Chapter 1

Cuban Ch. 1

Cuban discusses some themes familiar to current education practice. First, Cuban talks about the paradox in education of constancy amidst change. I believe the only constancy is that there has been an educational system and that system is constantly going through change. Cuban discusses some of the changes that schools have undergone. One thing is for certain education is in constant change.

Second, Cuban discusses the teacher-technology relationship or lack of relationship. He tells us historically teachers and has been “inflexibly resistant” to new technology and this continues into the current classrooms of today’s schools. As discussed in previous blogs there are several reasons why teachers are so unwilling to use the technologies available, the most relevant of which is lack of training. Teachers feel as though their instruction is hindered or “wasted” in trying to use the technology because they can’t get it to “work”.

Third, he talks about the contradictory social messages that teachers are faced with. Cuban lists the following four notions teacher face and that still rang true today:

· Socialize all children, yet nourish each child’s individual creativity.

· Teach the best that the past has to offer, but insure that each child possesses practical skills marketable in the community.

· Demand obedience to authority, but encourage individual children to think and question.

· Cultivate cooperation, but prepare children to compete.

In my opinion, teachers are continually asked to perform tasks that are above the realm of human possibility. I didn’t get the memo that along with my certification came superpowers (and I didn’t get the superpowers either- sad face, pouty lip). I feel that administration has added so many extra duties, paper work and documentation that instruction is suffering.

Cuban also echoes ideas mentioned in both Postman and Hughes. Discuss those ideas.

I did not see any direct and clear ideas of Postman and Hughes in Cuban’s writing. Postman and Hughes did discuss the enchantment that technology had on some people. Cuban also talked about those “who saw solutions to school problems in swift technological advances” (pg. 5). We have read about the spell technology cast over people.

There may have been others commonalities I am not seeing at the moment.

Cuban mentions a research study (p 13-14) that imputes a casual relationship between film use and student achievement. Research the terms “media comparison study” and “no significant difference research”. What do you find?

The research study Cuban discusses implied that films motivated students to learn.

I Google searched “media comparison study” and the following address provided a partial answer. A media study is “Media studies is an academic discipline and field of study that deals with the content, history and effects of various media” (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_studies).

“No significant difference research” was the parameters of another Google search and yielded the following website: no significant difference research. It is a website devoted to research study outcomes between alternate forms of delivery. Another interesting result was http://www.thejeo.com/Basu%20Conger%20Final.pdf . This was a study comparing face-to-face learning with distance learning.

In statistics, I learned that “no significant difference” meant that the results were not significant. The results could be attributed to other factors and therefore the hypothesis could not be proven true.

Synthesis of Thomas P. Hughes’, Human Built World: How to Think about Technology and Culture (2004)

I began reading Thomas P. Hughes, Human Built World: How to think about technology and culture (2004), with hopes of gaining insights into technology and culture. After reading the book, I have a basic knowledge of the history of technology and their effects on culture.

What was Hughes’ goal in writing this book?

In the beginning I was unable to determine the Hughes’ goal in writing this book. Hughes began his book with an introduction including an overview of each chapter. He presented a historical timeline of technology developments and reactions, both positive and negative, from critics of the times. Hughes discusses both cultural and ecological consequences resulting from the forward progression of technology. He focused on American events however he did discuss some developments in Germany, Russia and England.

I believe Hughes was writing this book to provide a knowledgeable understanding of technology. His goal was to provide readers with information on the history of technology in hopes of developing a more technologically literate public that will reject technological determinism in favor of social control of technology.

How effective is Hughes at exploring the human-built world? Does his definition of technology make sense?

In my opinion Hughes explores the human-built world comprehensively in America. He also makes connections between America and some European influences, especially Germany. One downfall however is Hughes failure to address the technological advances of other cultures of the world. Thus one can only conclude that Hughes’ intended target audience was Americans.

Hughes perceives technology as a creative process involving human ingenuity and bases his definition of technology on historical interpretations of technological events and works. Hughes focuses on technological machinery as resources to use in shaping the landscape. He feels the term technology is a somewhat new term that was not frequently used until the twentieth century. Hughes chooses to emphasize creativity and control derived from his background in history and engineering. Hughes’ definition of technology is as follows:

The craftsman, mechanics, inventors, engineers, designers, and scientists using tools, machines, and knowledge to create and control a human-built world consisting of artifacts and systems associated mostly with the traditional fields of civil, mechanical, electrical, mining, materials, and chemical engineering. Also consider it being used as a tool and as a source of symbols by many architects and artists. (pg. 4)

In my opinion, Hughes’ definition, although comprehensive, is limited due to his focus on the mechanical machinery aspects of technology. Hughes fails to address the other aspects such as language and the creation of the alphabet as writing. He emphasis on the mechanical arts may provide a focus but is problematic.

Some similar themes run through both Hughes and Postman. Are they legit? Do they seem to make sense?

Hughes and Postman have some common overlapping themes in their writings. I will discuss some of these themes beginning with religion.

First, both Hughes and Postman discuss the role of religion in shaping technology. Postman postulated that technological inventions have subverted religious morality and created a divorce of intellect. His view of advancing technology that would embed so deeply that it would begin to define the culture choking the moral and spiritual beliefs from society.

Religious beliefs have served as a basis of authority for centuries. It was thought by theologians that Christians had the ability to design tools and machines with the ability to transform the land into a Garden of Eden. Hughes reveals how humans have yearned to transform during the medieval and Renaissance culture. Hughes traces these desires from 45 B.C to the modern time in a historical time line of events and achievements. He discusses how Christian beliefs have structured and guided the developments of technology. The desire for a “second creation” of the Garden fueled the people; the human-built world is not the paradise the original Eden presented.

Hughes used the Judeo-Christian mythos as a means of explaining human technology use. Using the myth of the Garden of Eden as the premise of his argument Hughes states, “Humans have been engaged in creating a living and working place, a human-built world, ever since their ouster from the Garden of Eden” (pg. 7). He uses the ideology of technology being a gift from God and helping transform the world into a Garden of Eden, which was called “second creation”. Hughes presents a commonality with Postman when he presents Spengler’s ideals. Spengler associated mechanization with the decline of Western civilization. He believed the West was losing its moral and cultural center. Hughes continues and presents Lewis Mumford’s ideas of organic technology. Mumford believed humans should not limit themselves to machinelike creations but should create organic forms (pg. 61). He saw machines crushing the organic spirit and emotional and spiritual values essential for spontaneity and individuality. Hughes then says, “Favoring intimacy with machines, Americans did not have the fructifying close associations with nature and long-standing cultural traditions” (pg. 72). This was a result from Americans disconnect with their cultural roots. Foreign critics saw Americans as machines that had become interchangeable in appearance, attitudes, morals, and mores. Hughes also uses the Genesis belief that all creation was intended to serve a human purpose and that God has given humanity dominion over nature. However, he believes that technology should be used to attain this Edenic state.

Postman and Hughes both attempt to use religion and spiritual beliefs as basis of their arguments regarding technology. The role of religion in each argument is unrelated and different. I suspect that religion is a commonality due to its cultural impact on developing societies. Consequently both authors attempt to use religion as a supporting component to their argument.

Secondly, both Hughes and Postman warn of technology controlling society. Postman’s proposes that technology has yields a great deal of information and that information is the means by which human creativity will end. He asserts that “information” is an “enemy” and is dangerous. He claims innovations, such as the Gutenberg, have attempted to control information through books. He claims society’s gluttonous desire for information will lead to self-destruction. His deluded perception of reality is further evident by his ideals of the use of technology will ultimately render society to a bunch mindless people unable to think for their selves but rather relying upon technologies to think for them. Postman warns of a technopoly controlling the information given to people.

Hughes uses a contradictory argument. He surmises that society is technologically illiterate. He argues that humanity has failed to take responsibility for the environment and have not used technology to create an “eco-technological” environment. He calls for open divulgence of information between military and private companies for solving problems within the environment and society. Hughes also warns against complex technologies that may provide an opportunity for a privileged elite to redesign the human-built world along with humans through genetic engineering, robotics and nanotechnology. Hughes call to arms is reminiscent of Postman’s doomsday ranting.

Thirdly, Postman believes technology has cast a magical spell over humans leaving us captivated and awestruck. Hughes also recognizes that technology has marveled and awestruck humans allow them to exercise godlike creative powers. Hughes argues that in the twentieth century God was no longer needed. Man had esteemed himself and was full of hubris as a result of mechanization. Technologies brought an sense of power and control. These are also reminiscent of Postman’s writing.

How and where does education fit in Hughes’ scheme of the human-built world? Does it? Is education a technology according to Hughes?

In my opinion, education is necessary to accomplish the goal of Hughes’ writing. My conjecture is that education would be used to impart technologically knowledge to society. Hughes states, “In order to participate effectively in project design specifically and technology policy generally, however, the public needs to learn about the engineering, architectural, and managerial processes used in creating and nurturing ecotechnological systems” (pg. 170). He also talks about environmentalists educating the public.

Education is necessary to impart knowledge upon society. Children must be educated as well as adults. I feel educational learning would be a continually process in order to effectively participate in policy decisions. The human-built world was created from the minds of people who had been educated through formal or experiential learning. Therefore one could deduce that education was the beginning of the human-built world as well as a necessity in improving and sustaining it.

I do not feel that Hughes would consider education a technology. Hughes definition of technological as stated above focuses on creativity and control of a human-built world associated mostly with the sciences. I would consider education an open system from Hughes’ discussion of systems.

How effective do you think Hughes has been in providing an understanding of technology?

Hughes goal in writing this book was to provide an understanding of technology. In my opinion, Hughes gives an inclusive historical representation of American technology. Although he mainly focuses on the mechanization of technology, I feel I have gleaned knowledge of technology. He also discusses some of the consequences these advancing technologies have had on the environment and culture including the arts and humanities. After reading this book I have a better understanding of the role technology has had on culture and environment. However, Hughes has failed to change my level of participation in activist pursuits.

Final Summary

Hughes book is largely reflective of Western traditions and technological developments. Technology however was developed throughout the world. His book misses a great deal by focusing on the engineering aspects of technology. He also attempts to address some of the political and economic aspects of technology that is something Postman largely ignored.

Technology is developed and used to serve a purpose. The consequences and ramifications of using the technology is not always anticipated or an expected outcome. Hughes proposes that society should make choices about the technology they use and the effects that it will have on them and the environment. He also questions if the Judeo-Christian belief is responsible for the ill effects of technology on the environment. He suggests that Americans are in infatuated with new technologies and will overlook their problems.

Postman offered the divorce of technology and intellect while Hughes offers the divorce of technology and economics. I agree with Hughes that machine technology produced goods and services that excited consumers. Inventors gained fame and monetary wealth while technologies mass production of goods served to improve the quality of life for all people. Hughes discussed how Russia and Germany were the same the U.S. early on and looked to one another for inventing and learning ideas. The Soviet Union was trying to be more like America and looked at us a model. The world was looking and admiring Ford idealizing him for his accomplishments and electricity spawned mechanization. In my Postman blog I mentioned electricity as a technology and how dependent we are on it to use other technologies.

While reading I thought of America as a melting pot of cultures with a common thread that are all seeking the “American dream”. With the vast differences in cultures and religious ideals it is difficult to hold on and sustain the cultural traditions of the past- our cultural roots. It may be that the same desire that drove the first immigrants to America may be promoting this disconnect and withdrawal of traditions and religious beliefs that founded this country.

In chapter 4, Hughes discusses technology’s systems, controls and information and discovers the challenges that come with managing it. Hughes states, “Technological and organization systems are often so complex, so large, and so heterogeneous that interdisciplinary interactive groups sharing perspectives and information are needed to create and control them” (pg. 78). I was surprised that the military had such an influence on the development of communications and control. Forman’s conclusion that scientific talent flows where national priorities place incentives of money, prestige and excitement was of no surprise to me. The systems approach was applied to urban areas to solve the pressing urban problems.

Hughes discusses the arts (designing, building, paintings) in chapter five. A push to manufacture mass products arose using materials less organic and more man-made, such as plastic or steel with some opposition. In addition, designers used function to dictate design in buildings. Artists began to look at machines as works of art and making them the focus of paintings and photographs.

Hughes then discusses the movement against the spread of rigid order and control. Artists and architects alike went against the systems, order and control, which probably spurred the hippie movement. John Cage put on events or “happenings” during the 1960s in hippie communities. Music stressed more freedom and improvisation than rigid form. Architects pushed for freely evolving urban places.

Hughes concludes his book with the presentation of an ecotechnological system as the interaction of the natural and human-built systems. Most historical cities were shaped by nature and technology and are prime examples of an ecotechnical environment.

In the early chapters Hughes offered the assumption that humans were attempting to create a living and working place, a representation of the Garden of Eden. He proposed that humans would accomplish this “Edenic recovery” through the use technology. Hughes repeatedly talks about technology being used to transform the land in a godlike manner however he suggests that the human-built world would not be a paradise of beauty and utility they desired. Why? Developing technologies and mechanization came at a cost- an environmental cost. He wails that humans have been poor stewards of what God has given by laying waste to pristine environments and destroying ecosystems in the name of progress.

In essence I think Hughes is attempting to drawing attention to the ecological responsibility we have to preserve and develop more natural environments. He presents examples of cities using technology to redesign layouts and architecture to counter natural forces and make for better living. He proposes that the public must participate in technology policy and projects.

In my opinion, Hughes’ bottom line is: Incorporating the natural ecology in developments and using technologies to correct the mistakes of the past we can create a better world and “return to the Garden”.